The Berlin crisis was the zenith of a growing conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union over the status of Berlin. After WW2, Berlin was partitioned much as the rest of the country. The Soviets controlled the Eastern side, while the Allied Powers controlled the Western Side of the city. The difference was, Berlin was deep inside Soviet territory, and depended on supplies from Allied groups. Soon after the war, the main border between East and West Germany was closed to common traffic, cutting off an escape route for many East German’s. However, the border between East and West Berlin remained open, which gave many communist citizens a way to get to West Germany, and safety. East German’s flooded through Berlin, on their way to the west. 3.5 million people, 20% of the total population of East Germany left communism. So many of the exits were by skilled professionals, doctors, engineers, lawyers, that East Germany was experiencing a brain drain. All the educated were fleeing the country, and few people were replacing them. It was an extremely embarrassing situation for the East German government. The Soviet Premier issued an ultimatum to Kennedy, demanding the Allies withdraw all their forces from Berlin, and turn it over to the Soviets. The US and USSR negotiated, but neither was willing to move. Their relations were strained further by the U2 Spy Incidents. Both countries were building up their military forces, and looked to be set for war. The Soviet government broke several treaties by sending military into East Berlin, and constructing the Berlin wall. Kennedy refused demands to tear down the wall by force. He knew the wall was a way for the crisis to be resolved, without fighting. The wall satisfied communists, who no longer faced a brain drain, and was a huge propaganda coup for the Allies, who could claim the wall embodied communism, and government oppression. The Berlin crisis was defused, and prevented massive conventional, and even nuclear war in Europe.
The Bay of Pigs debacle was one of Kennedy’s biggest blunders. Before Kennedy became President, the communist uprising of Fidel Castro had toppled the pro-US government there. Eisenhower was furious at the failure of containment. He set about planning the eventual overthrow of Castro, using Cuban Exiles as an army. He gave the operation the go-ahead right before he left office. The CIA helped to train 2,000 Cuban exiles into a fighting force in camps around South America. The US clandestinely gave the exiles weapons, planes, and tanks to use in their fight. The Cubans had already learned of the invasion before hand, from KGB spies in the United States. The Invasion was an abject failure. The exiles were slaughtered on the beach, and their aircraft were shot down. 200 of them were killed, and 1800 more captured. The failure was an extreme embarrassment to Kennedy and the US government. The CIA made several key intelligence failures that contributed to the plan not succeeding. Kennedy looked stupid, and weak, and admitted responsibility on national TV, one of the few presidents who ever admitted a mistake of such magnitude. The invasion helped strengthen Castro’s government, and was a propaganda coup for Cuba and the Soviets. Both groups made plans to incite more communist uprisings across the world.
Thursday, April 30, 2009
Chaos in Cuba and Bad Blood in Berlin
A failed attempt at victory for the Untied States was a secret operation to invade the Bay of Pigs in Cuba. Its purpose was to cause disorder in Cuba and would end Castro’s reign. Eisenhower produced this in March 1960, when he allowed the CIA to prepare people who were exiled from Cuba to invade their former homeland. Kennedy approved the plan when he became president. On April 17, 1961, the 1,300 to 1,500 former Cubans with the aid of American troops reached the Bay of Pigs and the operation went downhill. Failed airstrikes, poor communication, lost soldiers, and a strong resistance were many of the troubles faced by the Americans and Cuban exiles. Kennedy had to take blame for the failure and had to pay $53 million in supplies to Cuba for the return of prisoners. After the catastrophe, the United States looked foolish and weak.
A major tension point of the Cold War was Berlin. East Berlin was controlled by the Soviets while the allies controlled West Berlin. By the year 1961, close to 3 million East Germans crossed the line and went to West Berlin. This angered Khrushchev. That many people leaving his lands showed the weakness of communism, or that at least something was wrong with the government. Since America had better nuclear power, Khrushchev could not close or land routes between West Berlin and West Germany. So on August 13, 1961, he ordered East German soldiers to build a wall of concrete and barbed wire. This Wall prevented East Germans leaving to West Berlin. While many Berliners were devastated, Kennedy did nothing in response. He also realized this showed the flaws of communism. The Wall symbolized the evils of communism and helped the United States provide a reason for their hatred.
Jonathan
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
Before the 1960's, the rights of people were not favored by the Supreme Court's discretion. Many times, the Supreme Court would side with the police or government institutions. The 1960's became a time of freedom for the people.
In 1963, Ernesto Miranda was taken into questioning by the police. He was one suspect of a kidnapping and rape case. After two long hours of questioning, Miranda wrote and signed a confession, which would later largely lead to his conviction in court. Miranda later appealed and claimed that his confession should be inadmissible in court. His arguments included the fact that he was coerced into his answers and the police never informed him of his right to an attorney and avoidance of self-incrimination. This case would later be named Miranda v. Arizona (1966).
Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote the majority ruling of Miranda v. Arizona. He stated that, "no statement obtained from the defendant can truly be the product of his free choice." Miranda's confession would not be used as evidence in a court of law, because it was illegally obtained. Therefore, Justice Warren decided that the police must inform suspects of their rights at the time of the arrest. If the suspect decides to invoke his/her rights, the interrogation must cease. This mandatory relaying of rights is now called the Miranda Rights.
Though the Miranda decision was controversial, it has helped many suspected criminals who are still entitled to their rights. This ruling equalizes the powers of the people and the government.
By: Shelly
Crisis Over Berlin and the Bay of Pigs
Two major Cold War events that marked Kennedy's presidency were the building of the Berlin Wall, and the Bay of Pigs disaster.
Just two weeks before Kennedy took office as president, Eisenhower had cut off all American relations with Cuba because Cuba's dictator, Fidel Castro, openly called himself a communist and was accepting aid from the Soviet Union. When Castro was in power, he seized several American and British oil refineries and began dividing up privately owned land to be worked on by communes. Much of this land was owned by American-based sugar companies. For these reasons, the U.S. was very wary of Cuba at the time.
Though some Cubans thought that Castro was a good leader, others saw his government as replacing one dictatorship with another. As a result, 10% of Cuba's population went into exile in the U.S. when Castro came into power. Because of this migration, a Cuban counterrevolutionary movement began to take shape in Miami. In March 1960, Kennedy secretly gave permission for the CIA to begin training Cuban exiles as soldiers.
The U.S. government's plan was to land the trained Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs in Southern Cuba and have them fight Castro's army and, in theory, spread the resistance to enough Cubans that Castro's regime would soon topple. Unfortunately, things did not go as planned.
On April 17, 1961, some 1300-1500 Cuban exiles landed in the Bay of Pigs. A CIA airstrike that was reported to have been successful had missed its mark, and a small advance group sent to distract Castro's forces never landed. Instead, the Cuban exiles were met by 25,000 of Castro's troops, armed with Soviet tanks and jets. Some Cuban exiles were captured; others were killed.
In the end, Kennedy had to bargain with Castro and send him $53 million in food and supplies to get the captured exiles back. The Bay of Pigs would be remembered from then on as a "perfectly excecuted failure".
Shortly after the conclusion of World War II, the Soviet Union had taken control of Eastern Germany and forced it to be a satellite state, while the Western powers took control of Western Germany, making it a capitalist democracy. It turned out that conditions in East Germany were worse than those in West Germany, and as a result, by 1961, 3 million East Germans had fled to West Germany through the divided city of Berlin. Not only did these refugees tell the rest of the world about how bad conditions were in East Germany, but their escape caused massive economic issues in East Germany by thinning the workforce.
This growing trend concerned Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. At first, he attempted to close off all road access to Western Berlin, but Kennedy refused to let this happen, and, due to the nuclear capability of the U.S., Khrushchev had to find another way around the problem. He instead ordered East German troops on August 13, 1961 to build the Berlin Wall to keep East Germans from fleeing to West Germany.
At first, some in the U.S. government suggested that the U.S. fight to keep the wall from going up, but Kennedy decided to let it stand as proof to the rest of the world that, when given a choice between communism and capitalism, most people will choose capitalism.
By Paul, D period.
The Other America
The Other America
In the 1950's millions of the white middle class moved out of the cities and into the suburbs, while the poor were going the opposite direction into the cities. This ended up in an urban crisis nicknamed the "White Flight." It had a direct impact on the poor, and hurt city economy. The lost business made it so cities could no longer afford things they once could and they had to cut down on police, schools, public transportation, and fire departments. Poverty grew and inner cities decayed, even though most Americans were unaware of it. By 1959 the poverty line for a family of four was $2,973 and in 2000 it was $17,601. Americans finally accepted the fact when writer Michael Harrington forced them to wake up with his book The Other America: Poverty in the US (1962).
Urban Renewal proposed a solution to the housing problems of the inner cities. The National Housing Act 1949 was passed to provie "a decent home and a suitable living enviroment for every American family." This act called for all rundown neighborhoods to be torn down so new low-income housing could be built. However some of the clear land was used for shopping centers, highways, parks and factories resulting in not enough housing to accomodate the misplaced people. Sadly many of the displaced people just ended up moving from ghetto to ghetto. Many cities of urban renawal claimed it had merely become urban removal.
The Great Society Programs
President Lydon Baines Johnson viewed the United States as a Great Society and he created many different programs in order to achieve the goal of having a Great Society. He began working towards his goal when he gave a speech at the University of Michigan and outlined the legislative program that he had planned in order to end poverty as well as racial discrimination.
President Johnson started with education and passed the Elementary and Secondary School Education Act of 1965 that gave over 1 billion dollars to help public schools. This money was devoted to buying textbooks and helping to fund new libraries for students. Johnson continued helping society and he changed Social Security by creating both Medicare and Medicaid programs. Medicaid brought health insurance to welfare recipients while Medicare provided hospitals with low insurance and cost for people over the age of 65. He then went on to help with housing and built over 240,000 new low cost apartments to help get people off the streets. He created the Department of Housing and Urban Development to continue to help get people into homes. Johnson created the Immigration Act of 1965 to end the immigration quotas that had been going on for people outside of Europe. Johnson was not only involved in helping the people of the United States but also the environment. He helped to create the Water Quality Act of 1965 to preserve the cleanliness of rivers throughout the states. Finally he created the Wholesome Meat Act of 1967 to ensure the safety of the food that consumers were buying and eating.
Overall Congress passed 206 of President Johnson's measures in order to help build a "Great Society" in the United States of America. This resulted in the number of poor people in the United States falling from 21% to 11% during Johnson's term
President Johnson started with education and passed the Elementary and Secondary School Education Act of 1965 that gave over 1 billion dollars to help public schools. This money was devoted to buying textbooks and helping to fund new libraries for students. Johnson continued helping society and he changed Social Security by creating both Medicare and Medicaid programs. Medicaid brought health insurance to welfare recipients while Medicare provided hospitals with low insurance and cost for people over the age of 65. He then went on to help with housing and built over 240,000 new low cost apartments to help get people off the streets. He created the Department of Housing and Urban Development to continue to help get people into homes. Johnson created the Immigration Act of 1965 to end the immigration quotas that had been going on for people outside of Europe. Johnson was not only involved in helping the people of the United States but also the environment. He helped to create the Water Quality Act of 1965 to preserve the cleanliness of rivers throughout the states. Finally he created the Wholesome Meat Act of 1967 to ensure the safety of the food that consumers were buying and eating.
Overall Congress passed 206 of President Johnson's measures in order to help build a "Great Society" in the United States of America. This resulted in the number of poor people in the United States falling from 21% to 11% during Johnson's term
What a Great Society...
Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) succeeded John F. Kennedy to president after Kennedy was shot on November 2, 1963. Johnson had a vision of America that he called the "Great Society," and he implemented many programs to achieve his vision.
Johnson considered education to be "the key which can unlock the door to the Great Society." The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided more than $1 billion to help public schools to purchase new textbooks and library materials. The 1965 Higher Education Act funded scholarships and low0interest loans for students. Johnson declared a war against poverty, passing acts like the Tax Reduction Act (1954), the Medicare Act (1965), and the Economic Opportunity Act (1964), which created projects such as VISTA, Job Corps, Project Head Start and others to fight poverty. Medicare provided hospital and medical insurance at low cost, and Medicaid extended health insurance to welfare recipients. In the housing industry, Johnson established the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) with Robert Weaver as Secretary (first African American cabinet member in U.S. history). LBJ also profoundly changed immigration laws by calling on Congress to pass the Immigration Act of 1965, which got rid of unfair immigration quotas from certain countries, especially ones not in Western Europe. The book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson caused a public outcry to help the environment. Johnson responded by passing the Water Quality Act of 1965, which required states to clean up rivers of pesticides like DDT. Others included the Wilderness Preservation Act (1965, set aside 9 million acres for national forests), Clean Air Amendment (1965, emission standards for vehicles), and the Air Quality Act (1967, set guidelines and extended enforcement power). Importantly, the public also convinced congress to pass Truth-in-packaging law that set standards for labels on products. Ralph Nader helped persuade Congress to establish safety standards for automobiles.
Johnson considered education to be "the key which can unlock the door to the Great Society." The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided more than $1 billion to help public schools to purchase new textbooks and library materials. The 1965 Higher Education Act funded scholarships and low0interest loans for students. Johnson declared a war against poverty, passing acts like the Tax Reduction Act (1954), the Medicare Act (1965), and the Economic Opportunity Act (1964), which created projects such as VISTA, Job Corps, Project Head Start and others to fight poverty. Medicare provided hospital and medical insurance at low cost, and Medicaid extended health insurance to welfare recipients. In the housing industry, Johnson established the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) with Robert Weaver as Secretary (first African American cabinet member in U.S. history). LBJ also profoundly changed immigration laws by calling on Congress to pass the Immigration Act of 1965, which got rid of unfair immigration quotas from certain countries, especially ones not in Western Europe. The book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson caused a public outcry to help the environment. Johnson responded by passing the Water Quality Act of 1965, which required states to clean up rivers of pesticides like DDT. Others included the Wilderness Preservation Act (1965, set aside 9 million acres for national forests), Clean Air Amendment (1965, emission standards for vehicles), and the Air Quality Act (1967, set guidelines and extended enforcement power). Importantly, the public also convinced congress to pass Truth-in-packaging law that set standards for labels on products. Ralph Nader helped persuade Congress to establish safety standards for automobiles.
Election of 1960 & Camelot Years
The race for candidacy between John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon was a close one. Nixon had the advantage of experience because he was the Vice President and had hoped to win by "riding on the coattails" of President Eisenhower's popularity. Kennedy was young, at age 43, but he had the support of African Americans and he was handsome and charismatic. His looks and charisma became of vital importance when the debates were televised. Nixon had hoped to show Kennedy's lack of experience in the debate on television on September 26, 1960, but Kennedy had the upper hand, having been coached by t.v. producers. The television age of politics proved to help Kennedy's campaign greatly. He was a better public speaker than Nixon and he looked better on the television, and the American public loved him for it. Kennedy's African American support came from his sympathy to the civil rights movement. When Martin Luther King Jr. was sentenced to an unfair punishment for a minor traffic violation, the Eisenhower administration did not intervene, and Nixon took no position on the matter. Kennedy took the time to call King's wife and let her know of his sympathy. His brother and campaign manager, Robert Kennedy convinced the judge who had ruled Martin Luther King Jr.'s case to let him out on bail. This act of support of civil rights was enough to swing many of the African American votes towards Kennedy's campaign. Kennedy ended up winning by less than 119,000 votes.
Kennedy's presidency fascinated the American public. His family became iconic, a role model for all American families. The newspapers and popular magazines were full of articles about the Kennedy's, stories of their kids and of Jacqueline Kennedy, the first lady. Jackie was loved by the public for her sense of style and beauty. She wowed people with her knowledge of languages, like french, and taste in music. The Kennedy term was nick-named the camelot years, in comparison to the court of King Arthur. One of John F. Kennedy's secret weapons was his team of advisors. This included McGeorge Bundy as national security advisor, Robert McNamara, the president of Ford motor company, as his secretary of defense, and Dean Rusk as the secretary of State. His brother Robert was the attorney general.
By Jennah
The Other America
For many Americans, the 1950s were a time of unprecedented prosperity. But not everyone experienced this financial well-bring. In the "other" America, about forty million people lived in poverty, untouched by the economic boom. Many of these poor were elderly people, single women and their children, or members of minority groups, including African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans. In the 1950s, millions of middle-class white Americans left the cities for the suburbs, taking with them precious economic resources and isolating themselves from other races and classes. At the same time, the rural poor migrated to the inner cities. Between the end of World War II and 1960, nearly five million African Americans moved from the rural South to urban areas. The urban crisis prompted by the "white flight" had a direct impact on poor whites and nonwhites. The cities lost not only people and businesses but also the property they owned and income taxes they had paid. City governments could no longer afford to properly maintain or improve schools, public transportation, and police and fire departments and the urban poor suffered.
Poverty grew rapidly in the decaying inner cities, many suburban Americans remained unaware of it. Some even refused to believe that poverty could exist in the richest, most powerful nation on earth. Each year, the federal government calculates the minimum amount of income needed to survive the poverty line. In 1959, the poverty line for a family of four was $2,973. In 2000, it was $17,601. Most African Americans, and Latinos in the cities had to live in dirty, crowded slums. One proposed solution to the housing problem in inner cities was urban renewal. The national Housing Act of 1949 was passed to provide "a decent home and a suitable living environmental for every American family." This act called for tearing down rundown neighborhoods and constructing low-income housing. Later, the nation's leader would create a new cabinet position, Housing and Urban Development (HUD), to aid in improving conditions in the inner city.
Although dilapidated areas were razed, parking lots, shopping centers, highways, parks, and factories were constructed on some of the cleared land, and there was seldom enough new housing built to accommodate all the displaced people. For example, a barrio in Los Angeles was torn down to make way for Dodger Stadium, and poor people were displaced from their homes simply moved from one ghetto to another. Some critics of urban renewal claimed that it had merely become urban removal.
Despite ongoing poverty, during the 1950s, African Americans began to make significant strides toward the reduction of racial discrimination and segregation. Inspired by the African-American civil rights movement, other minorities also began to develop a deeper political awarness and a voice. Mexican-American activism gathered steam after veterans returned from World War II, and a major change in government policy under Eisenhower's administration fueled Native American protest.
Many Mexicans had become U.S. citizens during the 19th century, when the United States had annexed the Southwest after the War with Mexico. Large numbers of Mexicans had also crossed the border to work in the United States during and after World War I. When the United States entered World War II, the shortage of agricultural loborers spurred the federal government to initaited, in 1942, a program in which Mexican braceros, or hired hands, were allowed into the United States to harvest crops. Hundreds of thousands of braceros entered the United States on a short-term basis between 1942 and 1947. When their empolyment was ended, the braceros were expected to return to Mexico. However, many remained in the United States illegally. In addition, hundreds of thousands of Mexicans entered the country illegally to escape poor economic conditions in Mexico.
Written by Arline
Poverty grew rapidly in the decaying inner cities, many suburban Americans remained unaware of it. Some even refused to believe that poverty could exist in the richest, most powerful nation on earth. Each year, the federal government calculates the minimum amount of income needed to survive the poverty line. In 1959, the poverty line for a family of four was $2,973. In 2000, it was $17,601. Most African Americans, and Latinos in the cities had to live in dirty, crowded slums. One proposed solution to the housing problem in inner cities was urban renewal. The national Housing Act of 1949 was passed to provide "a decent home and a suitable living environmental for every American family." This act called for tearing down rundown neighborhoods and constructing low-income housing. Later, the nation's leader would create a new cabinet position, Housing and Urban Development (HUD), to aid in improving conditions in the inner city.
Although dilapidated areas were razed, parking lots, shopping centers, highways, parks, and factories were constructed on some of the cleared land, and there was seldom enough new housing built to accommodate all the displaced people. For example, a barrio in Los Angeles was torn down to make way for Dodger Stadium, and poor people were displaced from their homes simply moved from one ghetto to another. Some critics of urban renewal claimed that it had merely become urban removal.
Despite ongoing poverty, during the 1950s, African Americans began to make significant strides toward the reduction of racial discrimination and segregation. Inspired by the African-American civil rights movement, other minorities also began to develop a deeper political awarness and a voice. Mexican-American activism gathered steam after veterans returned from World War II, and a major change in government policy under Eisenhower's administration fueled Native American protest.
Many Mexicans had become U.S. citizens during the 19th century, when the United States had annexed the Southwest after the War with Mexico. Large numbers of Mexicans had also crossed the border to work in the United States during and after World War I. When the United States entered World War II, the shortage of agricultural loborers spurred the federal government to initaited, in 1942, a program in which Mexican braceros, or hired hands, were allowed into the United States to harvest crops. Hundreds of thousands of braceros entered the United States on a short-term basis between 1942 and 1947. When their empolyment was ended, the braceros were expected to return to Mexico. However, many remained in the United States illegally. In addition, hundreds of thousands of Mexicans entered the country illegally to escape poor economic conditions in Mexico.
Written by Arline
Election of 1960 and the Camelot Years
In 1960 after President Eisenhower was ending his term, many people were feeling anxious because the economy was not doing well, and people were fearing that the United States military was starting to lag behind the Soviet Union. Massachusetts senator, John Kennedy was the nominee for the Democrats and and Vice President Richard Nixon was his republican opponent. The two men had very similar views on the various issues, but what helped Kennedy most was the civil rights issue and televised debates.
On September 26, 1960 both Nixon and Kennedy took part in the first televised debate for presidential candidates. Although voters worried that he did not have enough experience, only being 43, on the television he presented charisma to the public eye. Nixon used Kennedy's age and inexperience to his advantage during this time but the voters were swayed towards Kennedy because of his charm, and eloquence when he spoke. The other thing that helped Kennedy was the civil rights issue. When Martin Luther King was arrested and sentenced, Eisenhower and Nixon did nothing, while Kennedy called King's wife to show his sympathy and later, with the help from his brother, managed to get King out on bail. This event got all of the southern African- American votes to Kennedy and made Kennedy the 35th president of the U.S.
Kennedy was not many votes ahead of Nixon, but when he was inaugurated, the public had fallen in love with him and his family because of their charm and intelligence and had a great effect on the nation. After people found out how fast Kennedy could read, thousands of people were enrolling in reading courses. Many women took after Jacquelin's fashion style. The public was so amused by their family life, and with some of the best advisers around him, Kennedy was said to be a current day, Camelot.
Miranda v. Arizona
"You have the right to remain silent. Anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law. You have the right to an attorney present during questioning. If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you. Do you understand these rights?"
Everyone knows the Miranda Rights, from hearing them on TV, movies, any type of police footage, it's a well known fraze. But where it came from is sometimes forgotten to those not in tune with the Supreme Court System. One of the most impacting Supreme Court cases in history, Miranda v. Arizona, changed not only peoples rights under the Constitution, but the way that Police had to interact with their suspects.
The issue started in 1963, in Phoenix Arizona, when Ernesto Miranda was arrested for kidnapping and rape. The main problem was while the police were interrogating him, he signed a confession that led to his conviction. His conviction was "largely based on his confession", obviously. Ernesto Miranda then appealed to a higher court in Arizona because he claimed that his Fifth Amendment Rights to self incrimination had been violated; that they not only were for the court room, but for the interrogation times as well. Since the police had never once mentioned his right to an attorney or any of his other rights, such as the right to remain silent, his case was allowed.
His lawyer, John J. Flyn, had appealed to the Arizona State Supreme Court, who concluded that the lower courts ruling was still standing. The State Supreme Court Argued that Ernesto Miranda had not asked for a lawyer, and it was not the police's job to do so. John Flyn and Miranda then appealed to the United States Supreme Court, which was heard on February twenty first, 1996. On June thirteenth, 1966, the Supreme Court made their decision. In a 5-4 vote, a majoirty ruled in Miranda's favor. They had overturned his convivction, making him a free man, while also now enforcing a rule that police had to legally inform a suspect of his rights as soon as he was in questioning.
For the majority, Cheif Justice Earl Warren made clear the information that police had to inform suspects of. He quotes, "The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he has the right to remain silent, and that anything he says will be used against him in the court of law; he must be clearly informed that he has the right to consult with a lawyer and to have the lawyer with him during interrogation, and that, if he is indigent, a lawyer will be appointed to represent him." He did not put specific words in the police's mouth, but gave them an overall understanding of what they had to say. Today, police have a regularly rehearsed way of saying the Miranda Rights, and have to every time they have a suspect in custody.
Although back then it was a contraversial case, today it's a widly accepted police practice. Other cases such as Dicerson v. United States, have come to the suprme court, dealing witht the same issue as Miranda, but all have been ruled in favor of upholding the Miranda case. Cheif Justice Rehnquist said, "There is no justification here for overruling Miranda. Miranda has become embedded in routine police practice to the point where warnings have become part of our national culture."
By: Zoe.
Palatial.
Everyone knows the Miranda Rights, from hearing them on TV, movies, any type of police footage, it's a well known fraze. But where it came from is sometimes forgotten to those not in tune with the Supreme Court System. One of the most impacting Supreme Court cases in history, Miranda v. Arizona, changed not only peoples rights under the Constitution, but the way that Police had to interact with their suspects.
The issue started in 1963, in Phoenix Arizona, when Ernesto Miranda was arrested for kidnapping and rape. The main problem was while the police were interrogating him, he signed a confession that led to his conviction. His conviction was "largely based on his confession", obviously. Ernesto Miranda then appealed to a higher court in Arizona because he claimed that his Fifth Amendment Rights to self incrimination had been violated; that they not only were for the court room, but for the interrogation times as well. Since the police had never once mentioned his right to an attorney or any of his other rights, such as the right to remain silent, his case was allowed.
His lawyer, John J. Flyn, had appealed to the Arizona State Supreme Court, who concluded that the lower courts ruling was still standing. The State Supreme Court Argued that Ernesto Miranda had not asked for a lawyer, and it was not the police's job to do so. John Flyn and Miranda then appealed to the United States Supreme Court, which was heard on February twenty first, 1996. On June thirteenth, 1966, the Supreme Court made their decision. In a 5-4 vote, a majoirty ruled in Miranda's favor. They had overturned his convivction, making him a free man, while also now enforcing a rule that police had to legally inform a suspect of his rights as soon as he was in questioning.
For the majority, Cheif Justice Earl Warren made clear the information that police had to inform suspects of. He quotes, "The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he has the right to remain silent, and that anything he says will be used against him in the court of law; he must be clearly informed that he has the right to consult with a lawyer and to have the lawyer with him during interrogation, and that, if he is indigent, a lawyer will be appointed to represent him." He did not put specific words in the police's mouth, but gave them an overall understanding of what they had to say. Today, police have a regularly rehearsed way of saying the Miranda Rights, and have to every time they have a suspect in custody.
Although back then it was a contraversial case, today it's a widly accepted police practice. Other cases such as Dicerson v. United States, have come to the suprme court, dealing witht the same issue as Miranda, but all have been ruled in favor of upholding the Miranda case. Cheif Justice Rehnquist said, "There is no justification here for overruling Miranda. Miranda has become embedded in routine police practice to the point where warnings have become part of our national culture."
By: Zoe.
Palatial.
Miranda versus Arizona
It was 1963, and Arizona resident Ernesto Miranda was at his house in Phoenix when police arrived and arrested him on charges of kidnapping and rape. For the next two hours, Mr. Miranda was questioned without pause by officers and finally agreed to sign a confession. That confession was the main piece of evidence used to successfully convict him, which made Miranda appeal the decision, saying that he was forced to confess along with being unaware of his right to avoid self-incrimination. The case became known as Miranda v Arizona, and found its way to the Supreme Court. Chief Justice of the time Earl Warren wrote the majority opinion of the Court siding with Miranda, asserting that a police arrest is "inherently stressful" and that any evidence obtained at the time of the arrest may not be entirely the suspects choice. After the Court made its decision in 1966, it was the law for all police officers to inform suspects of their legal rights at the time of the arrest, and illegal for them to interrogate suspects who invoked those rights. The statements that police now say to all suspects have become known since then as the Miranda rights, beginning with the now-familiar sentence: "You have the right to remain silent." Many take issue with the Miranda decision, claiming that it impedes justice by protecting the rights of criminals. But the decision remains firm today, as anyone who has had unplanned contact with police can attest. Unfortunately for Ernesto Miranda, he was later convicted based on other evidence and subsequently retired.
The Greatness the Great Society
After the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963, Lyndon Johnson became President of the United States. In a speech on May 22, 1964, Johnson stated, “We have the opportunity to move not only toward the rich society and the powerful society, but toward the Great Society that demands an end to poverty and racial injustice, to which we are totally committed in our time.” Johnson envisioned a legislative program that would promote a richer quality of life for all.Between 1965 and 1966, Johnson's administration introduced many bills to Congress. Johnson considered education "the key which can unlock the door to the Great Society." Signed into law on April 11, 1965, the Elementary and Education Act of 1965 was the most important educational component of the Great Society. As one of the earliest federal aid packages for education in U.S. history, it provided more than $1 billion to help schools purchase materials and create special education programs in schools with a strong concentration of low-income children. Additionally, legislation regarding health was prioritized. Congress passed the Social Security Act of 1965, which authorized Medicare, providing hospital insurance and low-cost medical insurance to Americans age 65 or older. Title XIX of the Social Security Act created Medicaid, which extended health insurance to welfare recipients.
Congress also made several important decisions regarding housing, the environment and consumer protection. The Department of Housing and Urban Developmnt (HUD) was created. Also, Congress appropriated 240,000 units of low-rent public housing, which helped shift the nation's political power from rural to urban areas. Environmental protection was promoted when Congress passed the Water Quality Act of 1965, which required states to clean up rivers. Johnson also ordered the government to find the worst chemical polluters. Regarding consumer protection, Congress passed major safety laws, including a truth-in-packaging law that set standards for labeling consumer goods.
The most important domestic achievement of the Great Society programs was undoubtedly its profound effect on civil rights. Four civil rights acts were passed, including three in the first two years of Johnson's presidency. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 forbade job discrimination and the segregation of public accommodations. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 assured minority registration and voting. The Great Society also brought profound changes to the nation's immigration laws. The Immigration Act of 1965 ended quotas based on nationality and opened the door for many non-European immigrants to settle in the U.S.
Clearly, the optimism and determination of the LBJ administration were key factors in helping create numerous programs concerning education, housing, health, civil rights, the environment, consumer safety, and immigration. These Great Programs helped create, on some level, the Great Society that Lyndon B. Johnson had envisioned.
By Victor
You Have The Right...
Miranda v. Arizona, case code 384 U.S. 436, was held in Supreme Court in 1966. It was a 5-4 decision argued February 28–March 1, 1966 and decided June 13, 1966.
In March 1963, Ernesto Arturo Miranda was arrested for raping an 18-year-old girl. He later confessed to robbery and attempted rape under interrogation by police. At trial, prosecutors offered not only his confession as evidence (over objection) but also the victim's positive identification of Miranda as her attacker. Miranda was convicted of rape and kidnapping and therefore sentenced to 20 to 30 years imprisonment on each charge.
The Court stated that interrogation by a defendant in police custody will be admissible at trial only if the prosecution can show that the defendant was informed of the right to consult with an attorney before and during questioning, along with the right against self-incrimination prior to questioning by police, and that the defendant not only understood these rights, but voluntarily gave them up. According to the Supreme Court:
“The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he has the right to remain silent, and that anything he says will be used against him in the court of law; he must be clearly informed that he has the right to consult with a lawyer and to have the lawyer with him during interrogation, and that, if he is indigent, a lawyer will be appointed to represent him.”
Had Miranda been informed of his rights wished to act upon them:
“…at any time prior to or during questioning, that he wishes to remain silent, the interrogation must cease ... If the individual states that he wants an attorney, the interrogation must cease until an attorney is present. At that time, the individual must have an opportunity to confer with the attorney and to have him present during any subsequent questioning.”
However, the Arizona Supreme Court emphasized the fact that Miranda did not specifically request an attorney because the authorities never read or told him his rights. As a result, the Supreme Court rejected the confession, ruling that it would be admissible under the Fifth Amendment (right to remain silent) and Sixth Amendment (right to an attorney). Miranda's conviction was overturned.
In the end, Miranda was convicted by other evidence and served 11 years in prison.
Miranda v. Arizona left a warning famously known as the Miranda warning, a card carried by police officers to read suspects their rights:
- Tiffany
In March 1963, Ernesto Arturo Miranda was arrested for raping an 18-year-old girl. He later confessed to robbery and attempted rape under interrogation by police. At trial, prosecutors offered not only his confession as evidence (over objection) but also the victim's positive identification of Miranda as her attacker. Miranda was convicted of rape and kidnapping and therefore sentenced to 20 to 30 years imprisonment on each charge.
The Court stated that interrogation by a defendant in police custody will be admissible at trial only if the prosecution can show that the defendant was informed of the right to consult with an attorney before and during questioning, along with the right against self-incrimination prior to questioning by police, and that the defendant not only understood these rights, but voluntarily gave them up. According to the Supreme Court:
“The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he has the right to remain silent, and that anything he says will be used against him in the court of law; he must be clearly informed that he has the right to consult with a lawyer and to have the lawyer with him during interrogation, and that, if he is indigent, a lawyer will be appointed to represent him.”
Had Miranda been informed of his rights wished to act upon them:
“…at any time prior to or during questioning, that he wishes to remain silent, the interrogation must cease ... If the individual states that he wants an attorney, the interrogation must cease until an attorney is present. At that time, the individual must have an opportunity to confer with the attorney and to have him present during any subsequent questioning.”
However, the Arizona Supreme Court emphasized the fact that Miranda did not specifically request an attorney because the authorities never read or told him his rights. As a result, the Supreme Court rejected the confession, ruling that it would be admissible under the Fifth Amendment (right to remain silent) and Sixth Amendment (right to an attorney). Miranda's conviction was overturned.
In the end, Miranda was convicted by other evidence and served 11 years in prison.
Miranda v. Arizona left a warning famously known as the Miranda warning, a card carried by police officers to read suspects their rights:
- Tiffany
Movement of Migrant Workers
Three million workers are responsible for the harvesting of the fruit and vegetables that we all eat each day. There are two types of farmers, the kind that stays in the same spot all year is the most prevalent in the United States. The migrant workers are the ones who travel during different seasons do to the weather patterns. These paths are fairly consistent and can be mapped out and averaged from the region that they start from. These paths still continue today although they might be slightly shifted. An example of how they move would be a family who picks strawberry's in Michigan, then moves to Ohio for tomatoes, and then moves to Texas for the winter. The workers in Florida tend to stay there but can travel as far as New Hampshire for the summer. The winter season puts most of the farmers in the atlantic and midwest region out of work for around six months. This makes there work hard and barely worth the money they get. With out the workers willingness to move we might have a food shortage and not enjoy the variety of food that we do today.
Crisis Over Berlin and Bay of Pigs
The Bay of Pigs
In March of the year 1960, President Eisenhower granted the CIA permission to train Cuban exiles in secret for an invasion of Cuba. The purpose of the invasion was to trigger a mass uprising that would overthrow Cuba's leader, Fidel Castro. Kennedy heard of this plan only nine days after his election, and he approved it even though he was somewhat doubtful. Soon after, on April 17, 1961, up to 1,500 Cuban exiles with support from the US military landed on the southern coast of the island at Bahia de Cochinos, or the Bay of Pigs. The invasion, however, did not go according to plan; an air strike failed to knock out the Cuban air force, and an advance group that was sent to distract Cuban forces never reached the shore. The main commando unit landed only to face 25,000 Cuban troops backed up by Soviet tanks and jet aircraft. Invadors were either killed or imprisoned.
The disaster left Kennedy embarrassed, but he accepted the blame publicly for the fiasco. He negotiated with Castro for the release of surviving commandos and a paid ransom of $53 million in food and medical supplies. Kennedy promised exiles that they would soon return to a "free Havana."
Crisis over Berlin
In 1961, Berlin was in a state of turmoil. In the 11 years since the Berlin Aircraft, nearly 3 million East Germans (20% of the population) fled to West Germany to escape Communist rule. Their deperature threatened the country's weakening economony, and it also advertised the failure of the Communist government in East Germany. Krushchev wanted to solve this problem. In June of 1961, he threatened to sign a treaty with East Germany that would allow the country to close all access roads to West Berlin. Kennedy refused to give up US access to West Berlin. America's superior nuclear power prevented Krushchev from closing air and land routes between West Berlin and West Germany. Instead, the Soviet premier made a "shocking decision." On August 13, 1961, East German troops unloaded concrete posts and rolls of barbed wire along the border. Within a few days, the Berlin Wall was constructed, dividing East and West Germany.
The construction of the wall ended the Berlin Crisis. The wall proved successful in reducing the number of East German refugees, solving Krushchev's main problem. The barrier, however, became a symbol of Communist oppression that further aggravated Cold war tensions.
In March of the year 1960, President Eisenhower granted the CIA permission to train Cuban exiles in secret for an invasion of Cuba. The purpose of the invasion was to trigger a mass uprising that would overthrow Cuba's leader, Fidel Castro. Kennedy heard of this plan only nine days after his election, and he approved it even though he was somewhat doubtful. Soon after, on April 17, 1961, up to 1,500 Cuban exiles with support from the US military landed on the southern coast of the island at Bahia de Cochinos, or the Bay of Pigs. The invasion, however, did not go according to plan; an air strike failed to knock out the Cuban air force, and an advance group that was sent to distract Cuban forces never reached the shore. The main commando unit landed only to face 25,000 Cuban troops backed up by Soviet tanks and jet aircraft. Invadors were either killed or imprisoned.
The disaster left Kennedy embarrassed, but he accepted the blame publicly for the fiasco. He negotiated with Castro for the release of surviving commandos and a paid ransom of $53 million in food and medical supplies. Kennedy promised exiles that they would soon return to a "free Havana."
Crisis over Berlin
In 1961, Berlin was in a state of turmoil. In the 11 years since the Berlin Aircraft, nearly 3 million East Germans (20% of the population) fled to West Germany to escape Communist rule. Their deperature threatened the country's weakening economony, and it also advertised the failure of the Communist government in East Germany. Krushchev wanted to solve this problem. In June of 1961, he threatened to sign a treaty with East Germany that would allow the country to close all access roads to West Berlin. Kennedy refused to give up US access to West Berlin. America's superior nuclear power prevented Krushchev from closing air and land routes between West Berlin and West Germany. Instead, the Soviet premier made a "shocking decision." On August 13, 1961, East German troops unloaded concrete posts and rolls of barbed wire along the border. Within a few days, the Berlin Wall was constructed, dividing East and West Germany.
The construction of the wall ended the Berlin Crisis. The wall proved successful in reducing the number of East German refugees, solving Krushchev's main problem. The barrier, however, became a symbol of Communist oppression that further aggravated Cold war tensions.
Slaughtered like Pigs
When Kennedy became president, he was clearly expecting some sort of Cold War conflict to occur during his term. What he didn't expect was that it would occur a mere three months after his election, and the first confrontation would take place less than 90 miles from the shore of Florida. Nine days after his election, he was approached by the higher officials in the US military regarding a secret plan engineered by Eisenhower: a CIA sponsored invasion of Cuba. Even though some doubts lingered in his mind, Kennedy approved it and set one of the greatest Cold War military conflicts in motion.
Much of the attack had been hinted to before the actual planning and execution of the beach landing by Cuban exile forces. Eisenhower cut off diplomatic relations seventeen days before Kennedy took office. Kennedy declared in his State of the Union address on January 30, 1961, that Communism in the western hemisphere "can never be negotiated." The CIA, working undercover with a goal that was common knowledge to many people, did everything it could to end the Castro regime. Even before the Cubans celebrated their first year of independence, they knew it was coming. They simply didn't know when.
On the night of April 17, 1961, the US finally struck. Around 1,300 to 1,500 Cuban exiles supported by the US military landed on Cuba's southern coast at Bahia de Cochionos, the Bay of Pigs. The operation was doomed the second the exiles touched Cuban soil. The Cuban government responded almost immediately, taking air superiority and sinking much of the exiles' naval support. American air support, which had been promised to the exiles, was nowhere in sight. Cuban infantry, numbering almost 25,000 and backed by Soviet tanks and jet aircraft, slaughtered the invaders. By the third day, despite a feeble attempt at an air strike by the United States, the remaining 1,200 exiles surrendered. To them, the United States had backed out of the deal and betrayed them, leaving them to die on the shores of their former homeland by the hands of the Communists. They were, in all ways and forms, slaughtered like pigs; a namesake to the beach they landed on.
The Cuban Media took a field day at this event. It sensationalized the defeat of the "North American Mercenaries," spiked nationalism in Cuba, and idealized Castro, increasing his popularity exponentially. The United States feverently denied any accusation of involvement, but as Khruschev put it in a letter to Kennedy, "It is a secret to no one that the armed bands invading this country were trained, equipped and armed in the United States of America....It is still not late to avoid the irreparable. The government of the USA still has the possibility of not allowing the flame of war ignited by interventions in Cuba to grow into an incomparable conflagration."
The United States, embarrased from the conflict, could not tolerate the defeat and began planning other moves. Kennedy, taking responsibility, spoke to the American people in a moving speech and became more popular himself despite the gravity of the situation. It would be a long time for the exiles, almost 25 years for some, until they would finally be released through US payment of money and supplies, promising them that they would one day return to a "free Havana."
The Cold War moved on after the incident, inciting new conflicts and bringing the world again to the brink of nuclear war several times. But the day of a "free Havana," the day promised by Kennedy; that day still has yet to come.
By Brandon Cheung, D period
The Election of 1960 and the Camelot Years
In 1960, President Eisenhower's term drew to a close and the excitement of a new presidential election began to spread in America. As technology advanced, so did the ways the ways that the public was informed of the candidates' views. Televised debates were new to the race and greatly influenced the public opinion of the candidates. It was partly thanks to this advancement that Kennedy won the presidency. He appeared to be confident in his manner of speech compared to his opponent, Mr. Nixon, who seemed nervous and unsure of himself.
Kennedy's election in 1960 started a new era called The Camelot Years. Kennedy had won by less than 119,000 votes but in the beginning of his term, President Kennedy appeared many times on television, winning over the general public. The new first family fascinated the public. The public started to want to know everything there was to know about them. Many Americans signed up for speed reading classes after they discovered the President could read 1,600 words a minute. The public became more interested in fashion and culture because of the exquisite taste of the new First Lady. The name The Camelot Years came along when people linked the Kennedy White House to a Modern-day Camelot. To make the name even more suitable, the musical Camelot had just opened on Broadway that same year. His team, which was consisted of the main people in Kennedy's inner circle, called him the "best and the brightest" many times thanks to his expertise and his professionalism.
Emily Béatrice. regalia.
Kennedy's election in 1960 started a new era called The Camelot Years. Kennedy had won by less than 119,000 votes but in the beginning of his term, President Kennedy appeared many times on television, winning over the general public. The new first family fascinated the public. The public started to want to know everything there was to know about them. Many Americans signed up for speed reading classes after they discovered the President could read 1,600 words a minute. The public became more interested in fashion and culture because of the exquisite taste of the new First Lady. The name The Camelot Years came along when people linked the Kennedy White House to a Modern-day Camelot. To make the name even more suitable, the musical Camelot had just opened on Broadway that same year. His team, which was consisted of the main people in Kennedy's inner circle, called him the "best and the brightest" many times thanks to his expertise and his professionalism.
Emily Béatrice. regalia.
Election of 1960 and Camelot Years
The 1960 election was between senator John Kennedy from Massachusetts, the Democratic candidate, and Vice President Richard M. Nixon the republican candidate. The two main factors that helped Kennedy win the election was television and civil rights. The first televised debate was on September 26, 1960, even though Kennedy was very inexperience, he looked and talked better then Nixon did, and it helped Kennedy to win over voters. The second thing that helped Kennedy win the election was when Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. and 30 other African Americans were arrested for sitting at a segregated lunch table. King was sentenced to months of hard labor, for nothing more then a traffic violation. While the Eisenhower administration did not intervene and Nixon took no stand, Kennedy called Correta Scott King, King's wife, and talked to her and expressed his sympathy. While this was happening Kennedy had sent his brother to convince the judge who sentenced to release King on bail. All of this really won over the Africa American vote in the South and Midwest for Kennedy. These two events together really gathered a diverse group of people voting for Kennedy, but it was still a very close race between the two candidates.
JFK's time in the White House was said to remind people of Camelot, with the Presidents youthfulness and his brilliant advisers. His advisers were very diverse and called "the best and the brightest" by a journalist. Kennedy relied on all of his advisers, but the one he relied on most was his brother Robert Kennedy who he had appointed attorney general.
The Election of 1960 & the Camelot Years
As 1960 neared, voters were worried because the economy was entering a recession, Russia had launched Sputnik I in 1957, America’s military might appeared to be lagging behind the Soviets’, and Cuba sided with the Soviet Union. The two candidates that ran for the Presidential office in 1960 were Vice President Richard Nixon and Massachusetts senator John Kennedy. Although both candidates had similar positions on many issues, Nixon planned on using Eisenhower’s popularity to boost his own chances, while Kennedy used television and civil rights issues to boost his. Because Kennedy came from a wealthy family, he was able to have a well-organized and well-funded campaign. This greatly aided him, because many voters saw him as too young and inexperienced, and still others did not want a Roman Catholic in office; it could lessen the separation of church and state
.
On September 26, 1960, Kennedy and Nixon took part in the first televised presidential debate. Nearly 70 million viewers witnessed this event in action. Although Nixon was more experienced and was an expert on foreign policy, Kennedy spoke better and was more relaxed; he was coached my television producers. From that debate on, American campaigning was mainly done through television. An image could now be used as the “natural language of politics.”
Then in October of that year, Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested in Atlanta, Georgia, along with 33 other African-American demonstrators. The others were released, but King was sentenced to months of hard labor under the pretense of a minor traffic violation. Nixon took no public position on this event, while Kennedy personally called King’s wife while his brother persuaded the judge who sentenced King to release him on bail. This greatly pleased the African-American community and helped Kennedy gain votes in the Midwest and South.
Kennedy’s inauguration sparked a new style for the First Family: they were now seen as graceful, elegant, and witty. Kennedy also inspired the country to be optimistic and hopeful, while also asking for commitment and sacrifice. In his famous speech, Kennedy implored Americans to “ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.” Kennedy’s youth only aided him in expressing his charm and wit, and even his young and beautiful wife, Jacqueline Kennedy, helped improve his public image. The public did bite the bait. They became enthralled by every aspect of the Kennedy family’s life. John F. Kennedy’s ability to read 1,600 words a minute stirred thousands of people to enroll in speed-reading courses to become like the president, while many others were intrigued by Jacqueline Kennedy’s sense of style and culture. The First Family was well-known and universally liked, especially with the aid of numerous magazines, newspapers, and television programs. Such success and fame reminded many of a modern-day Camelot (the mythical court of King Arthur) because of how idolized the Kennedy family was during this time.
The election of President Kennedy was a turning point in American history; not only did it change the idea of how the First Family should be portrayed, but it also gave the country a new hope and optimistic outlook for the future under the leadership of this youthful, charming, and witty president.
~Michael B. Chun
.On September 26, 1960, Kennedy and Nixon took part in the first televised presidential debate. Nearly 70 million viewers witnessed this event in action. Although Nixon was more experienced and was an expert on foreign policy, Kennedy spoke better and was more relaxed; he was coached my television producers. From that debate on, American campaigning was mainly done through television. An image could now be used as the “natural language of politics.”
Then in October of that year, Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested in Atlanta, Georgia, along with 33 other African-American demonstrators. The others were released, but King was sentenced to months of hard labor under the pretense of a minor traffic violation. Nixon took no public position on this event, while Kennedy personally called King’s wife while his brother persuaded the judge who sentenced King to release him on bail. This greatly pleased the African-American community and helped Kennedy gain votes in the Midwest and South.Kennedy’s inauguration sparked a new style for the First Family: they were now seen as graceful, elegant, and witty. Kennedy also inspired the country to be optimistic and hopeful, while also asking for commitment and sacrifice. In his famous speech, Kennedy implored Americans to “ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.” Kennedy’s youth only aided him in expressing his charm and wit, and even his young and beautiful wife, Jacqueline Kennedy, helped improve his public image. The public did bite the bait. They became enthralled by every aspect of the Kennedy family’s life. John F. Kennedy’s ability to read 1,600 words a minute stirred thousands of people to enroll in speed-reading courses to become like the president, while many others were intrigued by Jacqueline Kennedy’s sense of style and culture. The First Family was well-known and universally liked, especially with the aid of numerous magazines, newspapers, and television programs. Such success and fame reminded many of a modern-day Camelot (the mythical court of King Arthur) because of how idolized the Kennedy family was during this time.
The election of President Kennedy was a turning point in American history; not only did it change the idea of how the First Family should be portrayed, but it also gave the country a new hope and optimistic outlook for the future under the leadership of this youthful, charming, and witty president.
~Michael B. Chun
Miranda v. Arizona
Miranda v. Arizona was a landmark 5-4 decision of the U.S. Supreme Court, which was argued February 28–March 1, 1966 and decided June 13, 1966. At the end of the court rulings, the court "held that both inculpatory and exculpatory statements made in response to interrogation by a defendant in police custody will be admissible at trial only if the prosecution can show that the defendant was informed of the right to consult with an attorney before and during questioning and of the right against self-incrimination prior to questioning by police, and that the defendant not only understood these rights, but voluntarily waived them."
In March 1963, Ernesto Arturo Miranda was arrested for raping an 18 year old, and while under interrogation by the police he also confessed to robbery and attempted rape. Miranda was convicted of rape and kidnapping and sentenced to 20 to 30 years imprisonment on each charge, with sentences to run concurrently.
When this case was sent to the U.S. Supreme Court, Chief Justice Earl Warren ruled that "due to the coercive nature of the custodial
interrogation by police, no confession could be admissible under the Fifth Amendment self-incrimination clause and Sixth Amendment right to an attorney unless a suspect had been made aware of his rights and the suspect had then waived them". Because of this, Miranda’s conviction was overturned.Because of this case, the Miranda rights or warnings were made which is typically delivered as "You have the right to remain silent. Anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law. You have the right to an attorney present during questioning. If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you. Do you understand these rights?"This ensured that a criminal suspect's Fifth Amendment was protected so there would be no self-incrimination.
-Zack
Crisis Over Berlin
In 1961, Berlin was in chaos. About 3 million East Germans, which was about 20% of the population at the time, fled into West Berlin in fear of Communist rule. These refugees advertised the failure of East Germany's Communist government. Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, wanted to stop people from leaving East Germany. In a meeting at Vienna, Austria, Khrushchev threatened to close all access roads to Berlin, however, President Kennedy still refused to back down. President Kennedy later told the nation that Berlin was "the great testing place of Western courage and will." President Kennedy pledged to stay in Berlin, saying, "[W]e cannot and will not permit the Communists to drive us out of Berlin." Khrushchev, with nothing left to do, started the construction of the Berlin Wall on August 13, 1961. In days, an enormous Berlin Wall was erected, separating East Germany from West Germany. The Berlin Wall served many purposes. It successfully reduced East Germans from escaping west, but at the same time, the Berlin Wall increased tensions as well as becoming an ugly symbol of Communist oppression.
-Lawrence
Crisis Over Berlin and Bay of Pigs
~I~
In March of 1960 President Eisenhower gave the "OK" to th CIA to train Cuban exiles for an invasion of Communist-controled Cruba. Their hope was to start a mass uprising that would lead to overthrowing Castro. Although JFK had his doubts, he let the plan go through with the agreement of his advisors. On April 17 1961, 1300-1500 Cuban exiles supported by US military forces made landing on Cuba. The small diversion force never arrived when the commando unit hit the shore and the US air force couldn't knock out the Cuban air power. This led to the invading exiles to be killed or capture by Castro's forces. The disaster led Kennedy embarrassed and publicly accepted the blame.By 1961, 20% of East Berlins' population had migrated out of the split city to find a better life. Khrushchev threatened the U.S. that he would close the access roads leading to West Germany. Kennedy firmly stood his ground and prepared the nation for a war. With Kennedy's determination and America's superior nuclear striking power prevented Khrushchev from closing these routes. Instead, as a way to solve the problem Khrushchev, the leader of the U.S.S.R. , asked for the building of the Berlin Wall, to keep the rest of East Berlin population inside. This wall eased the tensions in Germany, and became a focal point for Western superiority.
-Erik
~I~
Reaction to the Brown Decision
On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that segregation in schools was unconstitutional violation of the 14th Amendment, a decision that affected 12 million children in 21 states. Some states, like Kansas and Oklahoma, expected segregation to end with few problems. However, many other states actively opposed the ruling, using force to prevent African Americans from going to schools previously for whites only. The governor of Texas sent in the Texas Rangers to prevent desegregation, while officials in Mississippi and Georgia vowed for total resistance against admitting blacks into white schools. By 1955, more than 500 school districts had been desegregated, but other places faced heavy opposition, especially from groups like the KKK and the White Citizens Council, which boycotted businesses that favored desegregation.
In September 1957, nine African Americans volunteered to go to Central High, a previously white school in Little Rock, Arkansas. The school superintendent, Virgil Blossom, openly backed desegregation, but the governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, opposed desegregation. Faubus ordered the National Guard to turn away the “Little Rock Nine”, but a federal judge ordered Faubus to allow the students to be admitted. President Eisenhower, who did not want to take action earlier, was forced to place the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and ordered a thousand paratroopers into Little Rock to allow the nine students to attend school. In the same month, Senator Lyndon B. Johnson helped pass the Civil Rights Act of 1957, giving the attorney general more power over school desegregation; the law also gave federal government jurisdiction over violation of African-American voting rights.
By Andrew Hwang
Crisis Over Berlin and Bay of Pigs
In March 1960, President Eisenhower gave the CIA permission to train Cuban exiles for an invasion of Cuba. He hoped that the invasion would trigger an uprising to overthrow Castro. Kennedy learned of the plan a mere nine days after his election. He reluctantly approved the plan. On April 17, 1961, 1,300 to 1,500 Cuban exiles supported b the U.S. military landed on the southern coast at Bahia de Cochinos, the Bay of Pigs. The mission did not go as planned, as the air strike had failed to knock out the Cuban air force even though they claimed it had succeeded. An advance group never reached shore, and when the main unit landed they faced 25,000 Cuban troops backed by the Soviet Union. The Cuban media's report of the defeat of "North American mercenaries" was a big hit. One reporter stated that the Americans "look like fools to our friends, rascals to our enemies, and incompetents to everyone else." The disaster left Kennedy embarrassed and he publicly accepted the blame for the fiasco. He ended up paying 53 million dollars in food and medical supplies in return for the release of surviving commandos. He promised the exiles that they would return to a "free Havana." Castro continued to accept Soviet aid, even in the face of Kennedy's claim that he would resist further Communist expansion.
Kennedy's goal during the Cuban missile crisis was that he wanted to prove to Khrushchev his determination to contain communism. He was also thinking of the confrontation in Berlin, which led to the building of the Berlin Wall, which severed the city into two parts. In 1961, 11 years since the Berlin Airlift, almost 3 million East Germans had fled into West Berlin to escape communist rule. This decreased the East German population by 20 percent, advertised he failure of the East German Communist government, and weakened East Germany's economy. Khruschev realized that he needed to solve this problem, so at a summit meeting in Vienna, Austria in 1961, he threatened to sign a treaty that would enable East Germany to close all the access roads to West Berlin. Kennedy refused to give up U.S. access to West Berlin, causing Krushchev to declare, "I want peace. But, if you want war, that is your problem." Kennedy returned home proclaiming that Berlin was "the great testing place of Western courage and will." He pledged to keep communism at bay and not give up the U.S.'s hold on West Germany. This determination and the superior American nuclear power prevented Khrushchev from closing the air and land routes connecting East and West Berlin. Instead of closing those routes, the Soviet premier stunned the world by erecting the Berlin Wall seperating East Germany from West Germany. The wall ended the Berlin crisis, but increased Cold War tensions. The wall, along with armed guards and dogs, reduce the number of East German escapees, solving Khrushchev's problem. The wall was an ugly symbol of Communism though.
- Written by JP
Crisis Over Berlin and Bay of Pigs
During the beginning of the Cold War, when Kennedy and Khrushchev were leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union, two major events were the Bay of Pigs invasion, and the Berlin Wall.
It all started when Fidel Castro, a revolutionary leader, started a Communist regime in Cuba. Cuba is only 90 miles south of Florida, so the spread of Communism to our neighborhood is quite devastating. The more devastating event was that they accepted help from Soviet Union. In return, Cuba will have nuclear missiles on the island. Soon after Castro came into power, many Cubans were exiled, some to the United States In order to deal of the threat of the missiles that can go all the way to Denver in under 17 minutes, the CIA planned an invasion. They trained the exiles to take back Cuba, and free it from Castro and the Communist regime. A surprise to these exiles was that they surprise attack was known for a while before the actual invasion took place. The invasion failed, miserably. In the end, both leaders agreed to disarm nuclear weapons in Cuba in exchange for peace on the island.
Far from our home, but right in front of Soviet Union, Berlin was in crisis. In the western front, Berlin is a direct competition between The United States and the Soviet Union. Neither side wanted to leave. The tension between the two halves of the city was high. Then one day, Berlin was physically separated because Khrushchev ordered to build a concrete wall so that people would stop fleeing from the East Germany to the west. The result of this wall is that the direct and armed conflict is resolved, but it further aggravated the tension.
--Bonan
Wednesday, April 8, 2009
The Korean War
The Korean War originally begins with the division of Korea into the two separate countries. In 1910, Japan annexed Korea and ruled it separately until August 1945. Then, at the end of World War II, the Japanese troops north of the 38th parallel (the 38`° latitude line) surrendered to Soviet Russia, while the troops south of the parallel surrendered to the Americans. This resulted in a split country; the northern half was communist, while the southern half was democratic. Then in 1948, America established the Republic of Korea, based in Seoul (South Korea) and headed by Syngman Rhee. At the same time, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, led by Kim Il Sung, was set up in Pyongyang (North Korea). At this point, America felt confident in the stability of the country and withdrew troops in the area, leaving only about 500 soldiers by June of 1949. The Soviet Union noticed this and decided that America would not try to defend South Korea, and began giving supplies and arms to North Korea to prepare them to invade South Korea. Then, on June 25, 1950, the North Koreans launched a surprise attack and invaded South Korea. Although they claimed that the South Koreans crossed the border first and they were invading to arrest Syngman Rhee, the United Nations voted unanimously to stop North Korea, now considered an aggressor. On June 27, President Truman ordered that troops in Japan relocate to South Korea to assist the effort. These troops were placed under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, a World War II veteran and war hero. At this point, the Republic of Korea’s forces were pushed almost entirely down to the southern tip of Korea, around a town named Pusan. When the United States’ forces came to aid South Korea, General Douglas MacArthur made an amphibious attack on North Korea behind enemy lines at Inchon, a coastal town near Seoul. Not many North Korean soldiers were stationed at Inchon, making the attack less difficult. MacArthur captured Seoul.
Together, the UN, South Korea, and U.S. conquered many lands like Wonsan, Iwon and Pyongyang. The North Korean army was failing and the North Koreans were worried that MacArthur and his troops would spread to China. MacArthur thought it would be a good idea to invade China because the North Koreans were being supplied by China, but Truman did not want China to be attacked and cautioned MacArthur when he got close to the Chinese border.
Mao decided to fight back and helped push the North-South border down to the 38th parallel again, and on November 1, 1950 the Chinese surrounded the US and South Korean troops. A truce line was drawn, and North and South Korea became separate independent nations.
By Michael B. Chun and Julia Schubert
Origins of the Cold War
Core of the cold war started with the leaders and the ideologies that follow the times. In the American system, voting by the people electing a president and a congress from competing political parties. In the Soviet Union, the Communist party established a totalitarian government with no opposing parties. During the Potsdam conference the ideals of the US and USSR clashed on how the repartitions would be split with Germany. With Communism running rampant in war-torn Eastern Europe Communism began to flow throughout their crippled government. The Soviet Union took these nations under their wing making them satellite nations, thus tightening their grip on Eastern Europe. The US try to file an act of containment against the Soviet Union with the help of other western European nations. To act against this growing power the US enacted the Truman Doctrine to aid Democratic nations, Greece and Turkey, against the Communist threat. The Marshall plan was also enacted to help protect the Western Europeans against the Soviet Union. To be extra certain that Communism and the Soviet Union was contained US, Canada and the majority of the Western European nations signed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to fight the threat and come to the aid of each other if needed. To confront this alliance, The Soviet Union, its satellite states, and other communist nations signed the Warsaw pact that would let them help each other if the confrontation of NATO will ensue. These actions would create an era of fear and mystique that would hang over the head of the world’s inhabitants for years to come.
-Erik C
-Erik C
Invading the Seoul of the World
The Korean War was a civil war between warring factions of the same. In reality, it was much more of an international war. Several major nations became involved with either side; each giving them supplies and weapons to improve their chances of winning.
The origins of the Korean War lie in World War II. Japan captured the Korean peninsula before the war, and attempted to conform the Korean People to Japanese traditions. Korea’s national identity faltered, and its infrastructure and culture began to disappear. After the war, the southern half of Korea was put under American jurisdiction, while the North was put under Soviet control. Both powers were supposed to rebuild the country, and then unify the two halves. However, America installed a democratic government in the south, while the Soviet installed a communist puppet leader. Both nations armed their half of Korea. The U.S. gave the South defensive weapons. They wanted South Korea to defend them self against the North, but not be able to attack. They did not want the South to start a war they would surely get dragged into. Both Korea’s hated each other. The North believed that the South was an oppressive capitalist state that would trample the workingman, while the South felt the North would be a brutal dictatorship that suppressed rights, and took orders from Moscow. Both sides were ready for war, and fought several skirmishes, though no one wanted to make the first move. War was imminent.
The North made the first move, rushing across the border with a surprise attack. They claimed it was a response to a previous Southern attack, but this has been shown to be false. North Korea’s superior military power overwhelmed the weakened Southern forces. The poorly trained forces of the South were retreating, or defecting. There was no real organized resistance to the Northern offensive. Thousands of civilians were killed in the fighting, and both sides committed atrocities against the civilian populace. The North had hoped for a quick end to the “Reunification War”, but the entry of the American troops into the South destroyed any hope of a quick victory.
The U.S. Eighth Army entered the war for the South, but quickly showed its age. The bulk of American forced were inexperienced, and unprepared for the North Korean’s. They fought a loosing battle, and retreated around the city of Pusan. The American and South Korean forces held the city, and established a defensive perimeter. Allied air and sea power was coming into play, and massed air strikes prevented the North Koreans from breaking through. The US sent thousands of men and tanks into Pusan, to fortify the area so a counterattack could be made. They countered-attacked out of Pusan, and combined with a sea invasion at Incheon, the American’s overwhelmed the Korean’s, and began retaking lost territory. Over the course of the next two years, the Chinese would enter on the side of North Korea, and fight the Allied forces to a standstill on the 38th Parallel. The war would be a stalemate until the ceasefire in 1953. This ended open hostilities, but the two Korea’s today are as divided as they were during the fighting. An official state of war still exists between the countries.
By Jay and Jon
Alger Hiss and the Rosenbergs
In the years following World War II, American paranoia shifted from the Nazis and the Japanese to the communists, especially in the Soviet Union. This paranoia fueled many spy cases; the two most famous cases were those of Alger Hiss and the Rosenbergs. In 1948, a former Communist spy, Whittaker Chambers, accused Alger Hiss of spying on the United States for the Soviet Union. The biggest piece of evidence was microfilm of government documents supposedly found on Hiss’s typewriter. Congressman Richard Nixon gained fame through trying to prosecute Hiss, who was convicted of perjury and sent to jail. Hiss claimed he was innocent, but later evidence showed he was guilty.
The next case began with the explosion of the Soviet Union’s first atomic bomb, three to five years earlier than expected, On September 3, 1949. Klaus Fuchs admitted giving information about the American atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, minor activists in the American Communist Party, were implicated in the case. The Rosenbergs denied the charges and pleaded the 5th amendment, but they were found guilty of espionage. The couple was sentenced to death by electric chair in June 1953, despite heavy public protest.
By Andrew and Bonan
The next case began with the explosion of the Soviet Union’s first atomic bomb, three to five years earlier than expected, On September 3, 1949. Klaus Fuchs admitted giving information about the American atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, minor activists in the American Communist Party, were implicated in the case. The Rosenbergs denied the charges and pleaded the 5th amendment, but they were found guilty of espionage. The couple was sentenced to death by electric chair in June 1953, despite heavy public protest.
By Andrew and Bonan
Beginnings of the Korean War
Image of the Korean War Memorial in Washington D.C. obtained from http://answersinhistory.files.wordpress.com/2007/10/korean-war-memorial_large.jpgThe Japanese annexed Korea in 1910, and left it in August 1945. North of the 38th parallel, the Japanese surrendered to Soviets, and South of the parallel they surrendered to the Americans. In 1948 the Republic of Korea formed in the South, based in Seoul, the traditional capitol of Korea. It was headed by Syngman Rhee. In the North, communists formed the Democratic People's Republic based in Pyongyang, led by Kim Il Sung. By June of 1949, only 500 American troops were left in Korea as the rest were pulled out. Seeing this, the Soviets believed that the Americans would not fight back in the case of a North Korea invasion. June 25, 1950, North Korea attacked South Korea. South Korea called for a United Nations (U.N.) vote to send troops to stop the invasion. Because the Soviet Union was not present (they were boycotting the U.N. at the moment), the vote passed. June 27th, President Truman ordered American troops stationed in Japan to assist South Korea, as well as sending a fleet of warships. In total, 16 nations in the U.N. provided 520,000 troops, 90% of whom were American. Along with 590,000 South Korean troops, the U.N. forces were placed under the command of General Douglas MacArthur.
--Posted by Andres and Lawrence
McCarthy's Journeys of Anti-Communism (Witch Hunts)
Following World War II, United States became a nation that feared communism. This fear became so ingrained in the people of the U.S., that they began to turn to desperate measures just for their safety.Republican Senator, Joseph McCarthy was known to be the most anti-Communist activist of his time. He supported the ideas of McCarthyism, which were attacks on suspected communists. He falsely stated that he had names of 57, 81, and 205 communists in the State Department. The Republicans did nothing to stop McCarthy, because they wanted him to win in the elections of 1952. McCarthy was smart to keep his accusations in the senate, so as to avoid slander or being sued. Later, in 1954, McCarthy accused the United States Army of believing in communist ideals. This sparked a massive senate investigation. He lost most of his previous support and he was condemned for "improper conduct" by dishonoring the senate. Only three years later, McCarthy, suffering from alcoholism, died alone.
Though McCarthy was no longer the anti-communist's focused leader, many supporters continued to fight for his ideas. By 1953, 39 states made it illegal to support the overthrow of government. This law allows theses states to avoid future violent protests by resisting people.
By: Shelly and Tierney
The high flying cold war
After Stalins death in 1953 Nikita Khrushchev came to power. He favored communism and also liked competition between countries. The United States and the Soviet Union began competing in a "space race". The Russians started off with an early lead by launching Sputnik, the worlds first satellite. They also launched the first man into space just days before the Americans mission was scheduled for. However, the U.S. would overtake them in the years to come with more advanced tecnology and by putting a man on the moon.
The United States began to fly U-2 planes over the Soviet Union with infrared cameras. These cameras are able to see through clouds because they detect heat. They mapped out the missile sites and could also see troop movement. On the last authorized flight pilot Francis Powers was shot down 4 hours into his mission and parachuted to the earth below. He was then sentenced to 10 years in Soviet prison. This lead to tension between the two countries going into the 1960's.
The United States began to fly U-2 planes over the Soviet Union with infrared cameras. These cameras are able to see through clouds because they detect heat. They mapped out the missile sites and could also see troop movement. On the last authorized flight pilot Francis Powers was shot down 4 hours into his mission and parachuted to the earth below. He was then sentenced to 10 years in Soviet prison. This lead to tension between the two countries going into the 1960's.
McCarthy's "Which Hunt"
In 1950, Senator Joseph McCarthy was a relatively unpopular senator, and realized he needed a scheme to win the 1952 re-election. He decided to speculate and blame Communists for starting to infiltrate and take over the government. This caused a frenzy among the American population. He started with making completely unsupported small claims and accusations about "Communists" in the government. His attacks were then called, "McCarthyism" and later were known as unfair and unjust accusations.
At some points, he claimed to have the names of fifty seven to two hundred and five "known Communists" in the State Department. He never gave out a single name, however. He also blamed the Democratic party, his opposition, for "Twenty years of Treason," for bringing Communists and their influences into the government. The Republican Party, who had their eye on the Presidential Seat, did not do much to stop him, because they felt it strengthened their chances if they were seen as freeing the country of Communism. McCarthy was very careful to only make his accusations in the Senate, where he could not be sued.
His popularity started to decline once he made an allegation against the United States Army Force, for which the Senate initiated a public investigation that was aired on television. His public support dwindled away when the Senate found no support for his accusations. He was condemned by the Senate for "improper conduct" that brought the Senate into dishonor and dispute. Three years later, due to his raging alcoholism, he died.
The Palatial End.
Emily Béatrice & Zoe Rose
At some points, he claimed to have the names of fifty seven to two hundred and five "known Communists" in the State Department. He never gave out a single name, however. He also blamed the Democratic party, his opposition, for "Twenty years of Treason," for bringing Communists and their influences into the government. The Republican Party, who had their eye on the Presidential Seat, did not do much to stop him, because they felt it strengthened their chances if they were seen as freeing the country of Communism. McCarthy was very careful to only make his accusations in the Senate, where he could not be sued.
His popularity started to decline once he made an allegation against the United States Army Force, for which the Senate initiated a public investigation that was aired on television. His public support dwindled away when the Senate found no support for his accusations. He was condemned by the Senate for "improper conduct" that brought the Senate into dishonor and dispute. Three years later, due to his raging alcoholism, he died.
The Palatial End.
Emily Béatrice & Zoe Rose
The Korean War
Japan annexed Korea in 1910 and ruled it until August 1945. At the end of World War II, Japan surrendered to the Soviets in the North, but to the Americans in the South. This created a nation divided into two parts, one communist and one democratic. In 1948, the Republic of Korea, usually called South Korea, was established in the zone formerly controlled by the United States. The government, led by Syngman Rhee, was based in the traditional capitol of Seoul. The communists formed the Democratic people's Republic of Korea in the north, led by Kim Il Sung. After World War II, the United States cut back troops, leaving only 500 troops stationed in South Korea. This led the Soviets to believe they could take over the South by backing a North Korean offensive. On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces led a surprise attack on South Korea. This led to what would eventually be called the Korean War. North Korea moved deep into South Korea in a couple of days, and South Korea called on the UN for help. Since the Soviet UNion was boycotting the UN Security Council they could not veto the council's decision to help South Korea. After the council's decision, President Truman sent in troops from Japan and also sent an American fleet. Sixteen nations sent a total of 520,000 troops bringing the total South Korean forces to 590,000. 90% of these troops were Americans. The forces were put under the command of General Douglas MacArthur who had been a World War II hero.
Written by Arline and JP
McCarthyism In The 1950s
In 1950, Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin realized that he needed a winning issue in order a remain a Senator after the 1952 election. During his first three years in office, he had acquired the reputation of an ineffective legislator and had slim chances of re-election. So he began a campaign to expose suspected Communists within the government. During the next few years, he claimed to have the nam
es of up to 205 Communists inside the State Department. However, when pressed, he never actually revealed a single name. He made sure to accuse his suspects only in the Senate, where he was legally immune from being sued for slander. But he finally met his downfall in 1954 when he accused the United States Army, which resulted in a nationally televised Senate investigation. When Americans saw the way McCarthy bullied his witnesses, he lost public support. The Senate condemned him for improper conduct and the Wisconsin Senator faded into obscurity. Three years later, he died after a bout of alcoholism. But his influence remained strong. 39 states had passed laws making it illegal to advocate the violent overthrow of the government, while the American public was consumed by an atmosphere of fear and mistrust. People were forced to swear that they were not Communists before being able to participate in any public event. Luckily, these so called McCarthyism laws were later pronounced illegal, as they violated First Amendment rights.
Picture credit: http://www.nndb.com/people/490/000051337/joseph_mccarthy.jpg
es of up to 205 Communists inside the State Department. However, when pressed, he never actually revealed a single name. He made sure to accuse his suspects only in the Senate, where he was legally immune from being sued for slander. But he finally met his downfall in 1954 when he accused the United States Army, which resulted in a nationally televised Senate investigation. When Americans saw the way McCarthy bullied his witnesses, he lost public support. The Senate condemned him for improper conduct and the Wisconsin Senator faded into obscurity. Three years later, he died after a bout of alcoholism. But his influence remained strong. 39 states had passed laws making it illegal to advocate the violent overthrow of the government, while the American public was consumed by an atmosphere of fear and mistrust. People were forced to swear that they were not Communists before being able to participate in any public event. Luckily, these so called McCarthyism laws were later pronounced illegal, as they violated First Amendment rights.Picture credit: http://www.nndb.com/people/490/000051337/joseph_mccarthy.jpg
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)